articles (1): introduction
How much do articles matter?
The correct use of the articles (a/an and the) is one of the most difficult points in English grammar. Fortunately, most article mistakes do not matter too much. Even if we leave all the articles out of a sentence, it is usually possible to understand it.
Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week? However, it is better to use the articles correctly if possible.
a) speakers of Western European languages
Most languages of Western European origin, and one or two others, have article systems very like English. However, some of the rules in these sections will probably be useful. Note especially the following.
In English, when we are talking about people or things in general we do not usually use the with uncountable or plural nouns.
Life is complicated, (not The life is complicated.)
b) In English, we normally put a/an with a noun that is used for classifying -saying what class, group or type somebody or something belongs to, what job, role or position somebody or something fills, etc.
She's a dentist, (not She's dentist.)
I'm looking forward to being a grandmother.
(not ... to being grandmother.)
I used my shoe as a hammer, (not ... as hammer.)
c) speakers of other languages
If a student does not already have a very good knowledge of one of the languages listed in paragraph 2 (or a related language), he or she may have more difficulty with the correct use of articles. Most of the important problems are dealt with in the following sections.
articles (2): summary of the rules
1) articles are determiners
The articles a/an and the belong to a group of words called 'determiners'. (Determiners also include possessives like my, demonstratives like this and quantifiers like all. Articles normally come at the beginning of noun phrases, before adjectives.
2) What are articles used for?
Alan is called the 'indefinite article'. The is called the 'definite article'. Some/any'is often used as the plural of a/an. And if we use no article, this has a different meaning from all the others. So there are really four articles.
Articles are used to show whether we are referring to things that are known both to the speaker/writer and to the listener/reader ('definite'), or that are not known to them both ('indefinite').
Articles can also show whether we are talking about things in general or particular things.
3) the = 'we know which one(s)'
We say the doctor, the salt or the dogs (for example), when we expect the listener/reader to know which doctor, salt or dogs we are talking about. In other cases, we use a/an, some/any or no article. Compare:
I've been to the doctor. (You know which one: my doctor.) A doctor must like people. (- any doctor at all)
Could you pass me the salt?
(The listener knows that it is the salt on the table that is meant.)
We need some more salt, (not particular' known' salt)
- Have you fed the dogs?
(The listener obviously knows which dogs are meant.) Do you like dogs? (= dogs in general)
4) particular and general
We can use articles to show whether we are talking about particular things or things in general. Compare:
- There are some children in the garden. (= particular children)
Children usually start walking at around one year old. (children in general)
- They're delivering the oil tomorrow. (= particular oil)
Oil has nearly doubled in price recently. (= oil in general)
Note that with plural and uncountable nouns we use no article (zero article), and not the
5) to talk about people or things in general
Oil has nearly doubled in price, (not The oil...) Children usually start walking... (not The children...)
But we can sometimes use the + singular countable noun to generalise. Who invented the telephone?
articles (3): countable and uncountable nouns
Articles are used in different ways with countable and uncountable nouns.
1) the difference
Countable nouns are the names of separate objects, people, ideas etc which we can count.
a cat three cats
a secretary two secretaries
a plan two plans
Uncountable nouns are the names of materials, liquids and other things which we do not usually see as separate objects.
water (not -a-watcr, two waters)
wool (not a wool, two wools)
weather (not a weather, two weathers)
energy (not an energy, two energies)
2) use of articles
A singular countable noun normally has an article or other determiner with it. We can say a cat, the cat, my cat, this cat, any cat, either cat or every cat, but not just cat. (There are one or two exceptions) Plural and uncountable nouns (e.g. cats, water) can be used with or without an article or other determiner.
3) a /an
Plural nouns cannot be used with alan (because alan has a similar meaning to 'one'), and uncountable nouns are not generally used with a/an, though there are a certain number of exceptions (see paragraph 4).
4) exceptions: uncountable nouns treated as countable
Many normally uncountable nouns can be treated as countable to express the meaning 'a type of or 'a portion of.
Have you got a shampoo for dry hair?
Three coffees, please. Many other normally uncountable nouns can have 'partly countable' uses: they do not have plurals, but can be used with a/an. This can happen when the meaning is particular rather than general.
We need a secretary with a knowledge of English.
You've been a great help.
I need a good sleep. But some uncountable nouns (e.g. weather, progress) cannot normally be used in this way.
We're having terrible weather, (not .. .-a terrible weather
You've made very good progress, (not .. .-a-vcry good progress.) Note also:
She speaks very good English, (not ... a very good English.) Some nouns that are countable in other languages are uncountable in English. Examples are information (not an information), advice (not - an advice)
articles (4): the (details)
1) the = 'you know which one(s)'
The usually means something like 'you know which one(s) I mean'. We use the before a noun when our listener / reader knows (or can work out) which particular person(s), thing(s) etc we are talking about. Compare:
Did you lock the car? (The listener knows very well which car is meant.) We hired a car to go to Scotland. (The listener does not know which one.) The listener / reader may know which one(s) we mean because:
a) we have mentioned it / them before
She's got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy's fourteen and
the girl's eight. 'So what did you do then?' 'Gave the money straight back to the policeman.' (The speaker uses the because the listener has already heard about the money and the policeman.)
b) we say which one(s) we mean
Who's the girl over there with John?
Tell Pat the story about John and Susie.
c) it is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean
Could you close the door? (Only one door is open.) Ann's in the kitchen. Did you enjoy the party? What's the time?
2) the = 'the only one(s) around'
The listener may know which one(s) we mean because there is no choice -we are talking about something unique, like the sun, or something that is at least unique in our environment, like the Government, the police.
I haven't seen the sun for days.
the moon the stars the planets the earth the world
the unions the railways
the Japanese (There is only one Japanese nation.) This use of the (to show that there is no choice) is possible even when we are talking about somebody/ something that the listener knows nothing about.
You don't know the Aldersons, do you? (The use of the makes it clear that there is only one Alderson family in the speaker's social environment.)
Have you never heard of the Thirty Years' War? (There was only one.)
3) physical environment
The is also used with a number of expressions referring to our physical environment - the world around us and its climate - or to other common features of our lives. The use of the suggests that everybody is familiar with what we are talking about. Examples are:
the town the mountains the fog the future
the country the rain the weather the universe
the sea the wind the night the sunshine
the seaside
Do you prefer the town or the country?
My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains.
I love listening to the wind.
Note that no article (zero article) is used with nature, society or space when these have a 'general' meaning.
4) superlatives
We usually use the with superlatives because there is normally only one best, biggest etc individual or group (so it is clear which one(s) we are talking about). For the same reason, we usually use the with first, next, last, same and only.
I'm the oldest in my family. Can I have the next pancake?
We went to the same school.
5) the meaning 'the well-known'
After a name, an identifying expression with the is often used to make it clear that the person referred to is 'the well-known one'.
She married Richard Burton, the actor.
I'd like you to meet Cathy Parker, the novelist.
6) possessives and demonstratives
We do not use the with possessives or demonstratives. This is my uncle, (not .. The my uncle.) I like this beer, (not ... the this beer:)
7) proper names
We do not usually use the with singular proper names (there are some exceptions).
Mary lives in Switzerland, (not The Mary lives in the Switzerland)
But note the use of the with a person's name to mean 'the well-known'.
'My name's James Bond.' 'What, not the James Bond?'
8) things in general
We usually use no article, not the, to talk about things in general - the does not mean 'all'.
Books are expensive, (not The books are expensive.)
articles (5): a/an (details)
1) a/an
a) We can use a/an to talk about one particular person or thing, when the listener /reader does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one.
My brother's going out with a French girl. (The listener does not know which particular French girl it is.)
She lives in a nice big house.
Could you lend me a pen?
b) We can also use a/an to talk about any one member of a class.
A doctor must like people. (= any doctor)
A spider has eight legs.
c) And we can use alan after a copular verb or as to classify people and things -to say what class, group or type they belong to. She's an architect, (not She's architect.) I'm looking forward to being a grandmother. 'What's that noise?' 'I think it's a helicopter.' He decided to become an engineer. He remained a bachelor all his life. Don't use your plate as an ashtray, (not ... as ashtray.)
2) alan, some/any and no article (zero article)
Alan is mainly used with singular countable nouns. (The original meaning of alan was 'one'.) Before plural and uncountable nouns, we normally express similar meanings (see paragraph 1) with somelany or no article.
plural nouns
We met some nice French girls on holiday, (nOT French girls...)
Have you got any matches?
Doctors generally work longhours. (not A doctors...)
Both my parents are architects.
uncountable nouns
I think there's some butter in the fridge.
Whisky is made from barley.
'What's that on your coat?' 'It looks like paint'
3) adjectives
Alan cannot normally be used with an adjective alone (without a noun). Compare:
It's a good car.
It's good, (not It's a good.)
4) possessives
Alan cannot be used together with a possessive. Instead, we can use the structure a... of mine/yours/etc
He's a friend of mine, (not He's a my friend.)
5) when a/an cannot be dropped
Note that alan is not normally left out in negative expressions, after
prepositions or after fractions.
'Lend me your pen.' 'I haven 'tgota pen. '(not 'I haven't got pen.') You mustn't go out without a coat, (not ... without coat.) three-quarters of a pound (not three quarters of pound)
use with uncountable and plural nouns
Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with some/any or with no article. There is not always a great difference of meaning.
We need (some) cheese. I didn 't buy (any) eggs. Some is used especially in affirmative sentences; any is more common in questions and negatives the difference.
We use some/any when we are thinking about limited but rather indefinite vague numbers or quantities - when we don't know, care or say exactly how much/many. We use no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers or quantities, or not thinking about numbers /quantities at all. Compare:
- We've planted some roses in the garden.
(A limited number; the speaker doesn't say how many.)
I like roses. (No idea of number.)
- We got talking to some students. (A limited number.)
Our next-door neighbours are students.
(The main idea is classification, not number.)
- Would you like some more beer?
(An indefinite amount - as much as the listener wants.) We need beer, sugar, eggs, butter, rice and toilet paper. (The speaker is thinking just of the things that need to be bought, not of the amounts.)
- Is there any water in the fridge? (The speaker wants a limited amount.)
Is there water on the moon?
- This engine hardly uses any petrol. (The interest is in the amount.)
This engine doesn't use petrol.
(The interest is in the type of fuel, not the amount.) We do not use someI any when it is clear exactly how much / many is meant. Compare:
- You've got some great books.
You've got pretty toes. (A definite number - ten. You've got some pretty toes would suggest that the speaker is not making it clear how many -perhaps six or seven!)
articles (7): talking in general
1) the does not mean 'all'
We do not use the with uncountable or plural nouns to talk about things in general - to talk about all books, all people or all life, for example. The does not mean 'all'. Instead, we use no article. Compare:
- Move the books off that chair and sit down. (= particular books)
Books are expensive, (not The books arc expensive. The sentence is about books in general - all books.)
- I'm studying the life of Beethoven. (= one particular life)
Life is complicated, (not The life... The sentence is about the whole of life.)
-Where is the cheese?'I ate it'
I love cheese.
Why has the light gone out?
Nothing can travel faster than light.
Note that most (meaning 'the majority of) is used without the: Most birds can fly. (not The most...) Most of the children got very tired, (not The most...)
2) generalizations with singular words
Sometimes we talk about things in general by using the with a singular countable noun.
Schools should pay less attention to examination success, and more attention to the child. This is common with the names of scientific instruments and inventions, and musical instruments.
Life would be quieter without the telephone.
The violin is more difficult than the piano. We can also generalize by talking about one example of a class, using alan (meaning 'any') with a singular countable noun.
A baby deer can stand as soon as it's born.
A child needs plenty of love.
Note that we cannot use alan in this way when we are generalising about all of the members of a group together:
The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.
(not A tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. The sentence is about the whole tiger family, not about individuals.)
3) difficult cases: 'general' + 'known'
We use no article to generalise with uncountable and plural words (see paragraph 1 above); but we use the to show that the listener/reader knows which people or things we are talking about. Sometimes both these meanings come together, and it is difficult to know whether or not to use the.
the sea, the weather, etc
The is used with a lot of general expressions that refer to our physical environment - the world around us and its climate - or to other common features of our lives. The use of the seems to suggest shared experience or knowledge: the listener/reader 'has been there too'.
Do you prefer the town or the country?
My wife likes the sea, but I prefer the mountains.
English people always talk about the weather.
I wish the trains were cleaner and more punctual.
He's always after the girls. Note that we use no article with nature, society, space and other abstract nouns when these have a general meaning.
I love nature, (not ... the nature)
It isn't always easy to fit in with society, (not ... the society.)
We are just taking our first steps into space, (not ... the space.)
the Russians, etc
We often use the to refer to well-known, well-defined groups of people (e.g. nationalities), even when we are talking about these in general.
The Russians have a marvellous folksong tradition.
The Irish have their own language.
Should the police carry guns?
4) difficult cases: 'half-general'
Some expressions are 'half-general' - in the middle between general and particular. If we talk about eighteenth-century history, sixties music or poverty in Britain, we are not talking about all history, music or poverty, but these are still rather general ideas (compared with the history I did at school, the music we heard last night or the poverty I grew up in). In these 'half-general' expressions, we usually use no article. However, the is often used when the noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of. Compare:
- eighteenth-century music
- the music of the eighteenth century
- African butterflies
the butterflies of Africa
articles (8): special rules and exceptions common expressions without articles
In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement,
normally countable nouns are treated as uncountables, without articles.
Examples are:
to school at school in school (US) from school
to/at/from university/college (GB) to/in/from college (US)
to/at/in I into I from church to/in I into/out of bed/prison
to/in/into/out of hospital (GB) to/at/from work
to/at sea to/in/from town at/from home leave home
leave/start/enter school/university/college
by day at night
by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boat on foot
by radio I phone I letter I mail
With place nouns, similar expressions with articles may have different
meanings. Compare:
- I met her at college, (when we were students)
I'll meet you at the college. (The college is just a meeting place.)
- Jane's in hospital, (as a patient)
I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.
- Who smokes in class? (-... in the classroom?)
Who smokes in the class? (= Who is a smoker...?)
In American English, university and hospital are not used without articles. She was unhappy at the university.
a) double expressions
Articles are often dropped in double expressions, particularly with prepositions.
with knife and fork on land and sea day after day
with hat and coat arm in arm husband and wife
from top to bottom inch by inch
But articles are not usually dropped when single nouns follow prepositions (for exceptions, see paragraph 1 above).
You can't get there without a car. (not .. .without car.)
b) 's genitives
A noun that is used after an 's genitive (like John's, America's) has no article (just like a noun used after a possessive). the coat that belongs to John = John's coat
(not John's the coat or the John's coat) the economic problems of America - America's economic problems (not the America's economic problems) But the genitive noun itself may have an article. the wife of the boss - the boss's wife
c) the... of a...
In classifying expressions of this kind, the first article is definite even if the meaning of the whole expression is indefinite.
Lying by the side of the road we saw the wheel of a car. (not ... a wheel of a car.)
d) noun modifiers
When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun's article is dropped. guitar lessons = lessons in how to play the guitar
(not the guitar lessons) a sunspot = a spot on the sun
e) both and all
We often leave out the after both.
Both (the) children are good at maths. And we often leave out the between all and a number.
All (the) three brothers were arrested. We usually leave out the after all in all day, all night, all week, all year, all winter and all summer.
We've been waiting to hear from you all week.
I haven't seen her all day.
f) kind of, etc
We usually leave out a/an after kind of, sort of, type o/and similar expressions.
What kind of (a) person is she?
Have you got a cheaper sort of radio?
They've developed a new variety of sheep.
g) amount and number
The is dropped after the amount/number of.
I was surprised at the amount of money collected. The number of unemployed is rising steadily.
h) man and woman
Unlike other singular countable nouns, man and woman can be used in a general sense without articles.
Man and woman were created equal. But in modern English we more often use a woman and a man, or men and women.
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle, (old feminist joke)
Men and women have similar abilities and needs. Man is also commonly used to mean 'the human race', though many people regard this usage as sexist and prefer to avoid it.
i) 10 days, months and seasons
We use articles with the names of days of the week and months when we are talking about particular days or months.
We met on a wet Monday in June.
She died on the Tuesday after the accident.
We're having a very wet April.
It was the January after we went to Greece. But articles are not used when the meaning is 'the day/month before or after this one'.
See you on Thursday. See you in April.
Where were you last Saturday? We're moving next September.
To talk about the seasons in general, we can say spring or the spring, summer or the summer, etc. There is little difference. The is always used in in the fall (US).
Rome is lovely in (the) spring.
I like (the) winter best. When we are talking about particular springs, summers etc, we are more likely to use the.
I worked very hard in the summer that year.
j) musical instruments
We often use the + singular when we talk about musical Instruments in general, or about playing musical instruments.
The violin is really difficult.
Who's that on the piano'? But the is often dropped when talking about jazz or pop, and sometimes when talking about classical music.
This recording was made with Miles Davis on trumpet.
She studied oboe and saxophone at the Royal Academy of Music.
k) television, (the) radio, (the) cinema and (the) theater
When we talk about television as a form of entertainment, we do not use articles.
It's not easy to write plays for television.
Would you rather go out or watch TV? But articles are used when television means 'a television set'. Compare:
What's on TV?
Look out! The cat's on the TV! Articles are generally used with radio, cinema and theatre.
I always listen to the radio while I'm driving.
It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child. But the article can be dropped when we talk about these institutions as art forms or professions.
Cinema is different from theatre in several ways.
He's worked in radio all his life.
l) jobs and positions
We normally use alan when we say what job somebody has.
She's an architect, (not She's architect.) The is not used in titles like Queen Elizabeth, President Lincoln. Compare:
Queen Elizabeth had dinner with President Kennedy.
The Queen had dinner with the President. And the is not usually used in the complement of a sentence, when we say that somebody has or gains a unique position (the only one in the organisation). Compare:
They appointed him Head Librarian.
He's a librarian.
He was elected President in 1879.
I want to see the President.
m) exclamations
We use alan with singular countable nouns in exclamations after What.
What a lovely dress, (not What lovely dress!)
Note that alan cannot be used in exclamations with uncountable nouns.
What nonsense! (not -What a nonsense!)
What luck! (not What a luck!)
n) illnesses
The names of illnesses are usually uncountable in standard British English. The can be used informally before the names of some common illnesses such as the measles, the flu; others have no article. American usage is different in some cases.
I think I've got (the) measles.
Have you had appendicitis?
I'm getting toothache. (US ...a toothache)
Exceptions: a cold, a headache (US also an earache, a backache).
I've got a horrible cold.
Have you got a headache?
o) parts of the body, etc
When talking about parts of someone's body, or about their possessions, we usually use possessives, not the.
Katy broke her arm climbing, (not Katy broke the arm climbing.)
He stood in the doorway, his coat over his arm. (not ... the coat over the arm.)
However, when talking about parts of the body we generally prefer the in prepositional phrases related to the object of a clause (or the subject of a passive clause).
She hit him in the stomach.
Can't you look me in the eye?
He was shot in the leg. This can also happen in prepositional phrases after be + adjective.
p) measurements
Note the use of the in measuring expressions beginning with by.
Do you sell eggs by the kilo or by the dozen?
She drinks cough medicine by the litre.
He sits watching TV by the hour.
Can I pay by the month?
A/an is used to relate one measuring unit to another.
sixty pence a kilo thirty miles an hour (or ... miles per hour] twice a week, on average a third of a pint
q) place names
We use the with these kinds of place names: seas (the Atlantic) mountain groups [the Himalayas) island groups (the West Indies) rivers (the Rhine) deserts (the Sahara) most hotels (the Grand Hotel)
most cinemas and theaters (the Odeon; the Playhouse) most museums and art galleries (the British Museum; the Frick)
We usually use no article (zero article) with:
continents, countries, states, counties, departments etc {Africa, Brazil, Texas, Berkshire, Westphalia)
towns (Oxford)
streets (New Street, Willow Road)
lakes (Lake Michigan) Exceptions: places whose name is (or contains) a common noun like republic, state, union (e.g. the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States). Note also the Netherlands, and its seat of government The Hague.
In British English, the is unusual in the titles of the principal public buildings and organisations of a town.
Oxford University (not -the-Oxford-University)
Hull Station (not The Hull Station)
Salisbury Cathedral
Birmingham Airport
Bristol Zoo
Manchester City Council
Cheltenham Football Club
In American English, the is more often used in such cases:
The San Diego Zoo
The Detroit City Council
Names of single mountains vary. Most have no article.
Everest, Kilimanjaro, Snowdon Table Mountain
But definite articles are usually translated in the English versions of European mountain names, except those beginning Le Mont.
The Meije (= La Meije) The Matterhorn (= Das Matterhorn)
Mont Blanc (not -the-Mont Blanc)
r) newspapers and magazines
The names of newspapers usually have the.
The Times The Washington Post
The names of magazines do not always have the.
New Scientist
s) abbreviated styles
We usually leave out articles in:
newspaper headlines: MAN KILLED ON MOUNTAIN
headings: Introduction, Chapter 2, Section B
picture captions: Mother and child
notices, posters, etc: SUPER CINEMA, RITZ HOTEL
instructions: Open packet at other end
numbering and labelling: Go through door A
Control to Car 27: can you hear me?
Turn to page 26. (not ... the page 26.)
dictionary entries palm inner surface of hand...
lists: take car to garage; pay phone bill;...
notes: I think company needs new office
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